Smith, E. R., Brouder, L. M., Lawlor, C. E., & Haeffel, G. J. (2023). Listening to a popular upbeat song can lead to more adaptive cognitive inferences for stressful events in non‐clinical adult populations. British Journal of Clinical Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12412
Key Points
The paper reports on three studies examining whether music can positively impact cognitions related to stressful events. The key findings are:
- Study 1, which manipulated song lyrics and tempo, found no effects on cognitions.
- Study 2 found familiar, upbeat songs increased positive affect and decreased negative event-specific cognitions compared to neutral and no-song conditions.
- Study 3 replicated the Study 2 findings, ruling out a potential confound.
Taken together, Studies 2 and 3 indicate familiar, upbeat music may help facilitate more adaptive thinking during cognitive restructuring activities in therapy. However, more research is needed on real-world efficacy.
Familiar, personally enjoyable upbeat music was uniquely able to increase positive moods and lead to less negative thinking about hypothetical stressful events.
Results suggest beloved feel-good songs could help prime more adaptive self-talk during cognitive restructuring in therapy contexts, though more research is needed.
Rationale
Cognitive theories suggest negative thinking patterns like inferring stressful events will have overly negative implications for one’s future and self-concept, putting people at risk for depression (Abramson et al., 2002).
Interventions often target restructuring these maladaptive cognitions through questioning negative thoughts and weighing evidence (Beck, 1995).
However, cognitive restructuring can be difficult to implement effectively (Lawlor et al., 2022).
This research tests whether music listening could provide a scalable, easy-to-use strategy to nudge more adaptive thinking.
Method
Study 1 randomly assigned 336 U.S. adults to listen to unfamiliar songs differing in lyrics (neutral vs negative) and tempo (fast vs slow), rating inferences about a hypothetical event.
Study 2 (n=302 U.S. adults) and Study 3 (n=323 U.S. adults) randomly assigned participants to a familiar positive song, neutral song, or no-song control before the inference ratings. Affect was also measured.
Sample
All studies sampled U.S. adults from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (a crowdsourcing website).
- Study 1 had 336 participants aged 18-72 years (M=36.28, SD=11.63), 56% female.
- Study 2 had 302 participants aged 19-71 years (M=38.10, SD=12.10), 47% female.
- Study 3 had 323 participants aged 18-79 years (M=38.62, SD=13.12), 52% female.
Statistical Analysis
Inferential statistics included ANOVAs and follow-up least significant difference (LSD) tests (Study 1) as well as one-way ANOVAs with planned contrasts (Studies 2 and 3).
Results
Study 1 found no effects of song type on inferences.
Study 2 found familiar positive songs led to increased positive affect and less negative inferences than control conditions.
Study 3 replicated these effects, ruling out a potential familiarity confound.
Insight
Notably, manipulating different types of unfamiliar songs (Study 1) did not influence thinking, suggesting personally meaningful music developed over repeated listening is key for emotional processing impacts on cognition.
This aligns with literature on nostalgia and autobiographical memories evoked by familiar songs (Barrett et al., 2010).
However, no prior studies isolated the attributional effects familiar favored songs can exert on thinking about hypothetical events separate from evoking past memories.
Demonstrating accessible, enjoyable music people already know and love can shift event-specific inferences breaks new ground in understanding facilitated reappraisal mechanisms that may transfer to real-world settings.
Strengths
- Random assignment to conditions allows for causal claims about music’s impact
- Studies were adequately powered to detect small-to-moderate effects
- Core finding was replicated across two studies
- Included manipulation checks on key musical dimensions
- Used established, validated measures of cognition and affect
Limitations
- Samples are limited to U.S. adults recruited from MTurk
- Lacked diversity in ethnicity, SES, music training, clinical status
- Relied entirely on self-report measures
- Unclear if cognitive shifts are clinically meaningful
- Listening context was contrived and lacks ecological validity
- Did not examine moderators like musical preferences, mood reactivity
Implications
Results indicate familiar, upbeat music may amplify positive moods that precede the reappraisal of negative thoughts in therapy.
Clinicians could consider playing personally meaningful upbeat songs prior to restructuring.
More research should further examine dose-response effects and efficacy alongside clinical interventions.
Conclusions
These studies demonstrate the promise of familiar positive music as a facilitated reappraisal mechanism.
While questions remain regarding implementation, the method represents an inexpensive, universally enjoyable avenue for nudging adaptive thinking patterns. As rates of depression escalate globally, continued efforts to enhance accessible prevention strategies remain vital.
References
Abramson, L.Y., Metalsky, G.I., & Alloy, L.B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory- based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96(2), 358–372. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.96.2.358
Beck, J. S. (1995). Cognitive therapy: Basics and beyond. Guilford Press.
Lawlor, C., Goodson, J. T., & Haeffel, G. J. (2022). Cognitive behavioral therapy for depression: A primer. Clinical Psychology and Special Education, 11, 97–107. doi:10.17759/cpse.2022110206
Learning Check
- What role might familiarity with a song play in impacting its emotional and cognitive effects? How might listeners form associations and memories with familiar songs over time that unfamiliar songs lack?
- The study found effects on self-reported thoughts but did not include clinical samples. How might results differ in people currently experiencing depressive episodes versus the non-clinical samples tested?
- The authors suggest music may be a useful facilitator when combined with therapy techniques aimed at changing thought patterns. What might be some challenges or barriers to implementing music listening alongside clinical practice?
- What might be some alternative explanations for the finding that upbeat music increased positive affect and decreased negative inferences? Could other mechanisms besides facilitated reappraisal help explain the effects?
- The samples were demographically limited. How might cultural or individual differences influence musical preferences and emotional/cognitive responding? How could future research better account for these variables?
