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Social psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, beliefs, intentions, and goals are constructed within a social context by the actual or imagined interactions with others.
It, therefore, looks at human behavior as influenced by other people and the conditions under which social behavior and feelings occur.
Baron, Byrne, and Suls (1989) define social psychology as “the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior in social situations” (p. 6).
Topics examined in social psychology include the self-concept, social cognition, attribution theory, social influence, group processes, prejudice and discrimination, interpersonal processes, aggression, attitudes, and stereotypes.
Principles
Social psychology operates on several foundational assumptions. These fundamental beliefs provide a framework for theories, research, and interpretations.
- Individual and Society Interplay: Social psychologists assume an interplay exists between individual minds and the broader social context. An individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are continuously shaped by social interactions, and in turn, individuals influence the societies they are a part of.
- Behavior is Contextual: One core assumption is that behavior can vary significantly based on the situation or context. While personal traits and dispositions matter, the circumstances or social environment often play a decisive role in determining behavior.
- Objective Reality is Difficult to Attain: Our perceptions of reality are influenced by personal beliefs, societal norms, and past experiences. Therefore, our understanding of “reality” is subjective and can be biased or distorted.
- Social Reality is Constructed: Social psychologists believe that individuals actively construct their social world. Through processes like social categorization, attribution, and cognitive biases, people create their understanding of others and societal norms.
- People are Social Beings with a Need to Belong: A fundamental assumption is the inherent social nature of humans. People have an innate need to connect with others, form relationships, and belong to groups. This need influences a wide range of behaviors and emotions.
- Attitudes Influence Behavior: While this might seem straightforward, it’s a foundational belief that our attitudes (combinations of beliefs and feelings) can and often do drive our actions. However, it’s also understood that this relationship can be complex and bidirectional.
- People Desire Cognitive Consistency: This is the belief that people are motivated to maintain consistency in their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Cognitive dissonance theory, which posits that people feel discomfort when holding conflicting beliefs and are motivated to resolve this, is based on this assumption.
- People are Motivated to See Themselves in a Positive Light: The self plays a central role in social psychology. It’s assumed that individuals are generally motivated to maintain and enhance a positive self-view.
- Behavior Can be Predicted and Understood: An underlying assumption of any science, including social psychology, is that phenomena (in this case, human behavior in social contexts) can be studied, understood, predicted, and potentially influenced.
- Cultural and Biological Factors are Integral: Though earlier social psychology might have been criticized for neglecting these factors, contemporary social psychology acknowledges the roles of both biology (genes, hormones, brain processes) and culture (norms, values, traditions) in shaping social behavior.
History
Early Influences
Aristotle believed that humans were naturally sociable, a necessity that allows us to live together (an individual-centered approach), whilst Plato felt that the state controlled the individual and encouraged social responsibility through social context (a socio-centered approach).
Hegel (1770–1831) introduced the concept that society has inevitable links with the development of the social mind. This led to the idea of a group mind, which is important in the study of social psychology.
Lazarus & Steinthal wrote about Anglo-European influences in 1860. “Volkerpsychologie” emerged, which focused on the idea of a collective mind.
It emphasized the notion that personality develops because of cultural and community influences, especially through language, which is both a social product of the community as well as a means of encouraging particular social thought in the individual. Therefore Wundt (1900–1920) encouraged the methodological study of language and its influence on the social being.
Early Texts
Texts focusing on social psychology first emerged in the 20th century. McDougall published the first notable book in English in 1908 (An Introduction to Social Psychology), which included chapters on emotion and sentiment, morality, character, and religion, quite different from those incorporated in the field today.
He believed social behavior was innate/instinctive and, therefore, individual, hence his choice of topics. This belief is not the principle upheld in modern social psychology, however.
Allport’s work (1924) underpins current thinking to a greater degree, as he acknowledged that social behavior results from interactions between people.
He also took a methodological approach, discussing actual research and emphasizing that the field was a “science … which studies the behavior of the individual in so far as his behavior stimulates other individuals, or is itself a reaction to this behavior” (1942: p. 12).
His book also dealt with topics still evident today, such as emotion, conformity, and the effects of an audience on others.
Murchison (1935) published The first handbook on social psychology was published by Murchison in 1935. Murphy & Murphy (1931/37) produced a book summarizing the findings of 1,000 studies in social psychology. A text by Klineberg (1940) looked at the interaction between social context and personality development. By the 1950s, several texts were available on the subject.
Journal Development
• 1950s – Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology
• 1963 – Journal of Personality, British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology
• 1965 – Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
• 1971 – Journal of Applied Social Psychology, European Journal of Social Psychology
• 1975 – Social Psychology Quarterly, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
• 1982 – Social Cognition
• 1984 – Journal of Social and Personal Relationships
Early Experiments
There is some disagreement about the first true experiment, but the following are certainly among some of the most important.
Triplett (1898) applied the experimental method to investigate the performance of cyclists and schoolchildren on how the presence of others influences overall performance – thus, how individuals are affected and behave in the social context.
By 1935, the study of social norms had developed, looking at how individuals behave according to the rules of society. This was conducted by Sherif (1935).
Lewin et al. then began experimental research into leadership and group processes by 1939, looking at effective work ethics under different leadership styles.
Later Developments
Much of the key research in social psychology developed following World War II, when people became interested in the behavior of individuals when grouped together and in social situations. Key studies were carried out in several areas.
Some studies focused on how attitudes are formed, changed by the social context, and measured to ascertain whether a change has occurred.
Amongst some of the most famous works in social psychology is that on obedience conducted by Milgram in his “electric shock” study, which looked at the role an authority figure plays in shaping behavior. Similarly, Zimbardo’s prison simulation notably demonstrated conformity to given roles in the social world.
Wider topics then began to emerge, such as social perception, aggression, relationships, decision-making, pro-social behavior, and attribution, many of which are central to today’s topics and will be discussed throughout this website.
Thus, the growth years of social psychology occurred during the decades following the 1940s.
Scope
The scope of social psychology is vast, reflecting the myriad ways social factors intertwine with individual cognition and behavior.
Its principles and findings resonate in virtually every area of human interaction, making it a vital field for understanding and improving the human experience.
- Interpersonal Relationships: This covers attraction, love, jealousy, friendship, and group dynamics. Understanding how and why relationships form and the factors that contribute to their maintenance or dissolution is central to this domain.
- Attitude Formation and Change: How do individuals form opinions and attitudes? What methods can effectively change them? This scope includes the study of persuasion, propaganda, and cognitive dissonance.
- Social Cognition: This examines how people process, store, and apply information about others. Areas include social perception, heuristics, stereotypes, and attribution theories.
- Social Influence: The study of conformity, compliance, obedience, and the myriad ways individuals influence one another falls within this domain.
- Group Dynamics: This entails studying group behavior, intergroup relations, group decision-making processes, leadership, and more. Concepts like groupthink and group polarization emerge from this area.
- Prejudice and Discrimination: Understanding the roots of bias, racism, sexism, and other forms of prejudice, as well as exploring interventions to reduce them, is a significant focus.
- Self and Identity: Investigating self-concept, self-esteem, self-presentation, and the social construction of identity are all part of this realm.
- Prosocial Behavior and Altruism: Why do individuals sometimes help others, even at a cost to themselves? This area delves into the motivations and conditions that foster cooperative and altruistic behavior.
- Aggression: From understanding the underlying causes of aggressive behavior to studying societal factors that exacerbate or mitigate aggression, this topic seeks to dissect the nature of hostile actions.
- Cultural and Cross-cultural Dimensions: As societies become more interconnected, understanding cultural influences on behavior, cognition, and emotion is crucial. This area compares and contrasts behaviors across different cultures and societal groups.
- Environmental and Applied Settings: Social psychology principles find application in health psychology, environmental behavior, organizational behavior, consumer behavior, and more.
- Social Issues: Social psychologists might study the impact of societal structures on individual behavior, exploring topics like poverty, urban stress, and crime.
- Education: Principles of social psychology enhance teaching methods, address issues of classroom dynamics, and promote effective learning.
- Media and Technology: In the digital age, understanding the effects of media consumption, the dynamics of online communication, and the formation of online communities is increasingly relevant.
- Law: Insights from social psychology inform areas such as jury decision-making, eyewitness testimony, and legal procedures.
- Health: Concepts from social psychology are employed to promote health behaviors, understand doctor-patient dynamics, and tackle issues like addiction.
Example Theories
Allport (1920) – Social Facilitation
Allport introduced the notion that the presence of others (the social group) can facilitate certain behavior.
It was found that an audience would improve an actor’s performance in well-learned/easy tasks but leads to a decrease in performance on newly learned/difficult tasks due to social inhibition.
Bandura (1963) Social Learning Theory
Bandura introduced the notion that behavior in the social world could be modeled. Three groups of children watched a video where an adult was aggressive towards a ‘bobo doll,’ and the adult was either just seen to be doing this, was rewarded by another adult for their behavior, or was punished for it.
Children who had seen the adult rewarded were found to be more likely to copy such behavior.
Festinger (1950) – Cognitive Dissonance
Festinger, Schacter, and Black brought up the idea that when we hold beliefs, attitudes, or cognitions which are different, then we experience dissonance – this is an inconsistency that causes discomfort.
We are motivated to reduce this by either changing one of our thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes or selectively attending to information that supports one of our beliefs and ignores the other (selective exposure hypothesis).
Dissonance occurs when there are difficult choices or decisions or when people participate in behavior that is contrary to their attitude. Dissonance is thus brought about by effort justification (when aiming to reach a modest goal), induced compliance (when people are forced to comply contrary to their attitude), and free choice (when weighing up decisions).
Tajfel (1971) – Social Identity Theory
When divided into artificial (minimal) groups, prejudice results simply from the awareness that there is an “out-group” (the other group).
When the boys were asked to allocate points to others (which might be converted into rewards) who were either part of their own group or the out-group, they displayed a strong in-group preference. That is, they allocated more points on the set task to boys who they believed to be in the same group as themselves.
This can be accounted for by Tajfel & Turner’s social identity theory, which states that individuals need to maintain a positive sense of personal and social identity: this is partly achieved by emphasizing the desirability of one’s own group, focusing on distinctions between other “lesser” groups.
Weiner (1986) – Attribution Theory
Weiner was interested in the attributions made for experiences of success and failure and introduced the idea that we look for explanations of behavior in the social world.
He believed that these were made based on three areas: locus, which could be internal or external; stability, which is whether the cause is stable or changes over time: and controllability.
Milgram (1963) – Shock Experiment
Participants were told that they were taking part in a study on learning but always acted as the teacher when they were then responsible for going over paired associate learning tasks.
When the learner (a stooge) got the answer wrong, they were told by a scientist that they had to deliver an electric shock. This did not actually happen, although the participant was unaware of this as they had themselves a sample (real!) shock at the start of the experiment.
They were encouraged to increase the voltage given after each incorrect answer up to a maximum voltage, and it was found that all participants gave shocks up to 300v, with 65 percent reaching the highest level of 450v.
It seems that obedience is most likely to occur in an unfamiliar environment and in the presence of an authority figure, especially when covert pressure is put upon people to obey. It is also possible that it occurs because the participant felt that someone other than themselves was responsible for their actions.
Haney, Banks, Zimbardo (1973) – Stanford Prison Experiment
Volunteers took part in a simulation where they were randomly assigned the role of a prisoner or guard and taken to a converted university basement resembling a prison environment. There was some basic loss of rights for the prisoners, who were unexpectedly arrested, and given a uniform and an identification number (they were therefore deindividuated).
The study showed that conformity to social roles occurred as part of the social interaction, as both groups displayed more negative emotions, and hostility and dehumanization became apparent.
Prisoners became passive, whilst the guards assumed an active, brutal, and dominant role. Although normative and informational social influence played a role here, deindividuation/the loss of a sense of identity seemed most likely to lead to conformity.
Both this and Milgram’s study introduced the notion of social influence and the ways in which this could be observed/tested.
Strengths
Provides Clear Predictions
As a scientific discipline, social psychology prioritizes formulating clear and testable hypotheses. This clarity facilitates empirical testing, ensuring the field’s findings are based on observable and quantifiable phenomena.
Example:
The Asch conformity experiments hypothesized that individuals would conform to a group’s incorrect judgment.
The clear prediction allowed for controlled experimentation to determine the extent and conditions of such conformity.
Emphasizes Objective Measurement
Social psychology leans heavily on empirical methods, emphasizing objectivity. This means that results are less influenced by biases or subjective interpretations.
Example
Double-blind procedures, controlled settings, and standardized measures in many social psychology experiments ensure that results are replicable and less prone to experimenter bias.
Empirical Evidence
Over the years, a multitude of experiments in social psychology have bolstered the credibility of its theories. This experimental validation lends weight to its findings and claims.
Example:
The robust body of experimental evidence supporting cognitive dissonance theory, from Festinger’s initial studies to more recent replications, showcases the theory’s enduring strength and relevance.
Limitations
Underestimates Individual Differences
While social psychology often looks at broad trends and general behaviors, it can sometimes gloss over individual differences.
Not everyone conforms, obeys, or reacts in the same way, and these nuanced differences can be critical.
Example:
While Milgram’s obedience experiments showcased a startling rate of compliance to authority, there were still participants who resisted, and their reasons and characteristics are equally important to understand.
Ignores Biology
While social psychology focuses on the social environment’s impact on behavior, early theories sometimes neglect the biological underpinnings that play a role.
Hormones, genetics, and neurological factors can influence behavior and might intersect with social factors in complex ways.
Example:
The role of testosterone in aggressive behavior is a clear instance where biology intersects with the social. Ignoring such biological components can lead to an incomplete understanding.
Superficial Snapshots of Social Processes
Social psychology sometimes offers a narrow view, capturing only a momentary slice of a broader, evolving process. This might mean that the field fails to capture the depth, evolution, or intricacies of social processes over time.
Example:
A study might capture attitudes towards a social issue at a single point in time, but not account for the historical evolution, future shifts, or deeper societal underpinnings of those attitudes.
References
Allport, F. H. (1920). The influence of the group upon association and thought. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(3), 159.
Allport, F. H. (1924). Response to social stimulation in the group. Social psychology, 260-291.
Allport, F. H. (1942). Methods in the study of collective action phenomena. The Journal of Social Psychology, 15(1), 165-185.
Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Vicarious reinforcement and imitative learning. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(6), 601.
Baron, R. A., Byrne, D., & Suls, J. (1989). Attitudes: Evaluating the social world. Baron et al, Social Psychology. 3rd edn. MA: Allyn and Bacon, 79-101.
Festinger, L., Schachter, S., & Back, K. (1950). Social processes in informal groups.
Haney, C., Banks, W. C., & Zimbardo, P. G. (1973). Study of prisoners and guards in a simulated prison. Naval Research Reviews, 9(1-17).
Klineberg, O. (1940). The problem of personality.
Krewer, B., & Jahoda, G. (1860). On the scope of Lazarus and Steinthals “Völkerpsychologie” as reflected in the. Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft, 1890, 4-12.
Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created “social climates”. The Journal of Social Psychology, 10(2), 269-299.
Mcdougall, W. (1908). An introduction to social psychology. Londres: Methuen.
Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(4), 371.
Murchison, C. (1935). A handbook of social psychology.
Murphy, G., & Murphy, L. B. (1931). Experimental social psychology.
Sherif, M. (1935). A study of some social factors in perception. Archives of Psychology (Columbia University).
Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behavior. European journal of social psychology, 1(2), 149-178.
Triplett, N. (1898). The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition. American journal of Psychology, 9(4), 507-533.
Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion. New York: Springer-Verlag.
