Intergenerational continuity refers to the degree to which experiences, behaviors, and outcomes repeat or are transmitted across generations within a family. It captures the extent to which the lives of parents and their offspring are “linked” such that parents who experience a given circumstance tend to have children who experience similar circumstances.
Atherton, O. E., Graham, E. K., Dorame, A. N., Horgan, D., Luo, J., Nevarez, M. D., Ferrie, J. P., Spiro, A. III, Schulz, M. S., Waldinger, R. J., Mroczek, D. K., & Lee, L. O. (2023). Is there intergenerational continuity in early life experiences? Findings from the Harvard Study of Adult Development. Journal of Family Psychology, 37(8), 1123–1136. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0001144
Key Points
- There is notable intergenerational continuity in childhood social class, such that fathers from lower childhood social classes tend to have offspring who also experience lower childhood social classes. However, there is no intergenerational continuity for other early life experiences like home atmosphere, parent-child relationship quality, and childhood health.
- Several family-level factors moderate intergenerational continuity in early life experiences. Continuity is strongest for families where fathers have higher education levels, upward intergenerational education mobility, and more stable marriages. These factors lead the next generation to have more positive early life experiences, regardless of the father’s own early life experiences.
Rationale
Prior research shows clear evidence for intergenerational continuity in adverse or atypical experiences like trauma, teen parenthood, and criminal behavior (Berlin et al., 2011; Brook et al., 2015; Farrington et al., 2009; Jaffee et al., 2013; Meade et al., 2008; Narayan et al., 2019; Sierau et al., 2020; Sipsma et al., 2010).
However, less is known about continuity in more commonplace early life experiences like home atmosphere and relationship quality.
Comparing continuity across multiple domains can clarify which experiences are more rooted in biological, genetic, or social structural factors versus psychosocial factors that may show more generational malleability (Bronfenbrenner, 1992; Dannefer, 2003).
Further, despite theories on cumulative disadvantage (Dannefer, 2003), the degree to which both risk and protective factors at the family- and person-level strengthen or weaken intergenerational continuity is not well understood.
Identifying factors that disrupt difficult early life conditions has important intervention implications (Jaffee et al., 2013).
Method
This preregistered study leveraged multigenerational data from 518 fathers (G1) and their 1312 offspring (G2). G1’s early life experiences were retrospectively rated in young adulthood, while G2’s were rated in midlife.
Using multilevel modeling, intergenerational continuity was tested across four domains: childhood social class, home atmosphere, parent-child relationship quality, and childhood health.
Moderators included family size, father education level/mobility, and marital stability.
Sample
The sample was socioeconomically diverse but demographically homogeneous, comprised of 97.5% White Americans.
Fathers were originally recruited in late adolescence in the 1930s-40s from either a Harvard cohort or a delinquent cohort. Their offspring were assessed approximately 70 years later.
Statistical Analysis
Multilevel models estimated intergenerational continuity and moderation effects. Between- versus within-family variance in early life experiences was computed using intraclass correlations. Pseudo R-squareds quantified variance explained.
Results
- Childhood social class showed high intergenerational continuity, explaining 49% of variance across generations. Other early life experiences showed null-to-small continuity (R^2 range = 0-2.4%).
- Continuity was strongest when fathers had higher education levels or upward mobility in education across generations. Continuity was weaker when fathers had less education, leading offspring to have worse early life experiences regardless of the father’s experiences.
- Similarly, families perceiving more marital stability had offspring with better home atmospheres regardless of father’s home atmosphere. At the same time, lower perceived marital stability was related to worse home atmospheres for offspring regardless.
Insight
There appears notable intergenerational continuity in early life social class reflecting systemic disparities, whereas other domains show more potential for generational change.
Family-level factors like education and marital stability can strengthen positive intergenerational patterns but also buffer against negative continuity of early disadvantage.
Intergenerational continuity appears most rooted in childhood social class, likely reflecting enduring social inequalities and barriers to mobility in the United States (Andersen et al., 2021; Song et al., 2020).
In contrast, a lack of continuity for psychosocial domains may indicate these experiences have more room for generational change at the individual- or family-level.
However, intergenerational continuity in early life experiences overall suggests disadvantaged social class can negatively shape interconnected ecologies for offspring in uncaptured ways (Conger et al., 2010; McLaughlin et al., 2021).
Strengths
- Multigenerational family data spanning eight decades
- Multiple offspring per family
- Early life measures selected through rigorous harmonization procedures to maximize conceptual equivalence
- Statistical models accounting for nesting of offspring within families
Limitations
- Homogeneous sample limits generalizability to White Americans
- Fathers only, lacking maternal data
- Differing methods used across generations may underestimate continuity
- Limited dispersion in childhood health scores
Implications
Results suggest interventions should target childhood poverty and constrained mobility in social class to prevent intergenerational cycles of disadvantage.
Improving father education and upward mobility may disrupt continuity. Supporting marital stability can also benefit home environments for offspring regardless of parental experiences.
Policies and interventions should consider multigenerational family processes. More research on underlying mechanisms is needed.
References
Primary reference
Atherton, O. E., Graham, E. K., Dorame, A. N., Horgan, D., Luo, J., Nevarez, M. D., Ferrie, J. P., Spiro, A. III, Schulz, M. S., Waldinger, R. J., Mroczek, D. K., & Lee, L. O. (2023). Is there intergenerational continuity in early life experiences? Findings from the Harvard Study of Adult Development. Journal of Family Psychology, 37(8), 1123–1136. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0001144
Other references
Andersen, S. H., Richmond-Rakerd, L. S., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2021). Nationwide evidence that education disrupts the intergenerational transmission of disadvantage. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(31).
Berlin, L. J., Appleyard, K., & Dodge, K. A. (2011). Intergenerational continuity in child maltreatment: Mediating mechanisms and implications for prevention. Child Development, 82(1), 162–176.
Brook, J. S., Balka, E. B., Zhang, C., & Brook, D. W. (2015). Intergenerational transmission of externalizing behavior. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(10), 2957-2965.
Conger, R. D., Schofield, T. J., Neppl, T. K., & Merrick, M. T. (2013). Disrupting intergenerational continuity in harsh and abusive parenting: The importance of a nurturing relationship with a romantic partner. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(4), S11-S17.
Farrington, D. P., Coid, J. W., & Murray, J. (2009). Family factors in the intergenerational transmission of offending. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 19(2), 109-124.
Jaffee, S. R., Bowes, L., Ouellet-Morin, I., Fisher, H. L., Moffitt, T. E., Merrick, M. T., & Arseneault, L. (2013). Safe, stable, nurturing relationships break the intergenerational cycle of abuse: A prospective nationally representative cohort of children in the United Kingdom. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(4, Suppl), S4-S10.
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., Humphreys, K. L., Belsky, J., & Ellis, B. J. (2021). The value of dimensional models of early experience: Thinking clearly about concepts and categories. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(6), 1463-1472.
Meade, C. S., Kershaw, T. S., & Ickovics, J. R. (2008). The intergenerational cycle of teenage motherhood: An ecological approach. Health Psychology, 27(4), 419-429.
Narayan, A. J., Ippen, C. G., Harris, W. W., & Lieberman, A. F. (2019). Protective factors that buffer against the intergenerational transmission of trauma from mothers to young children: A replication study of angels in the nursery. Development and Psychopathology, 31(1), 173-187.
Sierau, S., Warmingham, J., White, L. O., Klein, A. M., & von Klitzing, K. (2020). Childhood emotional and conduct problems in childhood and adolescence differentially associated with intergenerational maltreatment continuity and parental internalizing symptoms. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 48(1), 29-42.
Sipsma, H., Biello, K. B., Cole-Lewis, H., & Kershaw, T. (2010). Like father, like son: The intergenerational cycle of adolescent fatherhood. American Journal of Public Health, 100(3), 517-524.
Song, X., Massey, C. G., Rolf, K. A., Ferrie, J. P., Rothbaum, J. L., & Xie, Y. (2020). Long-term decline in intergenerational mobility in the United States since the 1850s. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(1), 251-258.
Learning Check
- How might the lack of intergenerational continuity in psychosocial domains of early life give us hope? What are some alternative explanations for this finding?
- What impacts might enduring intergenerational continuity in childhood social class have on individuals and society?
- Why might fathers’ education level and mobility be such critical factors in disrupting negative intergenerational cycles? What barriers keep those with less education from experiencing this disruption across generations?
- In what ways might stable marriages promote resilience and buffer against risky early life conditions for offspring? What mechanisms might explain this buffering effect?
- How could the mixed findings inform prevention efforts targeting childhood adversity and toxic stress? What multipronged approaches might be needed to disrupt disadvantage across generations?
